What is the Power Gap?
It’s been 70 years since Ontario became the first jurisdiction in Canada to pass pay equity legislation. Fifty years since governments began enacting laws that banned discrimination in hiring, firing and promotions on the basis of sex. Forty years since the federal government made it illegal for employers to fire a woman for becoming pregnant. Thirty years since women overtook men in university graduating classes. And it’s been 10 years since the wage gap budged in any significant way.
For women in the workplace, progress has stalled. By almost every metric, they continue to lag generations behind men.
Two and a half years ago, the Globe and Mail set about trying to understand why. What we found is that inequities run much deeper than compensation or a lack of female CEOs.
There is a power gap in the modern work force.
In an unprecedented analysis of hundreds of public sector salary records, The Globe has found that women continue to be outnumbered, outranked and out-earned by men not just at the very top, but on the way to the top and in the middle.
There are more men serving as supervisors, managers, senior managers, directors, executive directors and vice-presidents. More men on executive teams and at the helm of institutions. More men in six-figure jobs. And when comparison was possible, The Globe found that in a majority of cases, men were earning more than their female counterparts — women who worked for the same company and at the same management rank.
A two-and-a-half year investigation by The Globe and Mail into the wage gap has revealed a bigger problem: The Power Gap between men and women at Canada’s public institutions. Investigative reporter Robyn Doolittle runs through some of the key takeaways of how and where men outnumber, outrank and out-earn women in Canada.
The Globe and Mail
The Globe collected salary records from 244 entities in four key pillars that shape Canadians’ lives – 82 universities, 25 cities, seven provincial governments and 130 public corporations – and then married this information with gender-probability statistics (about 90 per cent of first names in Canada are associated with a particular gender at least 95 per cent of the time). The Globe’s analysis is the first of its kind and the most detailed picture available of where women stand in the Canadian workplace. (We targeted the public sector because this is the only workplace salary data available to scrutinize.)
Only high-earning public employees in provinces with legislation are subject to disclosure. Usually, the threshold is $100,000. In jurisdictions with a lower bar, The Globe only captured employees who earned six-figures. The federal government, the territories, and the provinces of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island have no sunshine laws. In Quebec, organizations are only required to release data for their most senior employees. The Globe’s dataset is connected to the 2017 and 2017/2018 fiscal years, depending on the respective entity’s disclosure practices. (Read more about our methodology.)
To capture a full picture of what’s happening in each workplace, The Globe assessed the data through multiple lenses: the overall number of men and women among six-figure earners; the gender divide at different salary bands; the number of women working in executive decision-making roles (the “power positions”); the gender divide at the very top; the divide between white women and women of colour; and the wage gap at each level. This framework was used to evaluate each individual entity, as well as each of the four pillars. Because Quebec – with the exception of the City of Montreal – only releases data for the most senior earners, these organizations could not be used in calculations that required the full work force. Quebec entities are included in “power position” and “top leader” findings. (Montreal agreed to release the first — but not last — names of its employees so we could complete the gender analysis.)
Although the results varied by entity, there was a clear big-picture trend. Men are still making more money than women, although the difference is typically small (low single digits). However there are dramatically more men in high-paying jobs. Of the 171 organizations that disclosed full workplace data, men outnumbered women at 84 per cent of them and out-earned women on average 68 per cent of the time. Among the power positions at those entities – the executive leadership team and president – men outnumbered women at 71 per cent of the entities. (And in 10 per cent of cases, the representation was equal.)
Explore The Globe’s data
Click or tap on the pillar icons below to search your city, university or other public entity. Individual entity data is included on each of these pages.
The Power Gap overall
Men outnumbered and out-earned women in high-income jobs in every pillar. There were also more men on executive teams and at the helm of organizations. There were a handful of exceptions – institutions where women outnumbered men – but even in those entities, women struggled to rise. Of the 24 organizations that had more women earning six figures than men, only 11 had more women on their leadership teams. (In four cases, the split was even, and two had no executives to analyze.)
Overall representation of men vs. women
Men
Women
Publicly owned
corporations
76%
24%
65%
35%
Municipalities
Universities
61%
39%
Provincial
governments
61%
39%
Overall representation of men vs. women
Men
Women
Publicly owned
corporations
76%
24%
65%
35%
Municipalities
Universities
61%
39%
Provincial
governments
61%
39%
Overall representation of men vs. women
Men
Women
Publicly owned
corporations
76%
24%
65%
35%
Municipalities
Universities
61%
39%
Provincial
governments
61%
39%
How much women make for every
dollar men make
90¢
92¢
94¢
96¢
98¢
Equal
$1.02
Provincial
governments
Municipalities
Publicly owned
corporations
Universities
How much women make for every
dollar men make
90¢
92¢
94¢
96¢
98¢
Equal
$1.02
Provincial
governments
Municipalities
Publicly owned
corporations
Universities
How much women make for every dollar men make
90¢
92¢
94¢
96¢
98¢
Equal
$1.02
Provincial
governments
Municipalities
Publicly owned
corporations
Universities
Looking at leadership
That women are underrepresented among presidents and CEOs in the private sector is well known. That trend held true in the public sector. Of the 237 cities, corporations and universities in our dataset, 226 had a “top leader” on their salary disclosure. Of those, 166 were led by men. Of the six provincial governments that release detailed data, there were 136 deputy ministers, the top civilian position; of those, 80 were men. Among the organizations being run by women, only six were led by racialized women, and three deputy ministers were women of colour. (The Globe was unable to determine the racial identity of six top women leaders.) At the executive power-position level, women continued to be outnumbered among decision-makers.
Gender split among top leaders
(including CEOs, city managers, deputy ministers
and presidents)
Men
Women
Publicly owned
corporations
71%
29%
93%
7%
Municipalities
Universities
76%
24%
Provincial
governments
58%
42%
Gender split among top leaders
(including CEOs, city managers, deputy ministers
and presidents)
Men
Women
Publicly owned
corporations
71%
29%
93%
7%
Municipalities
Universities
76%
24%
Provincial
governments
58%
42%
Gender split among top leaders
(including CEOs, city managers, deputy ministers and presidents)
Men
Women
Publicly owned
corporations
71%
29%
93%
7%
Municipalities
Universities
76%
24%
Provincial
governments
58%
42%
Women and men in executive
‘power positions’
(including vice-presidents, commissioners,
associate deputy ministers and
executive directors)
Men
Women
Publicly owned
corporations
59%
41%
62%
38%
Municipalities
Universities
60%
40%
Provincial
governments
55%
45%
Women and men in executive ‘power positions’
(including vice-presidents, commissioners, associate
deputy ministers and executive directors)
Men
Women
Publicly owned
corporations
59%
41%
62%
38%
Municipalities
Universities
60%
40%
Provincial
governments
55%
45%
Women and men in executive ‘power positions’
(including vice-presidents, commissioners, associate
deputy ministers and executive directors)
Men
Women
Publicly owned
corporations
59%
41%
62%
38%
Municipalities
Universities
60%
40%
Provincial
governments
55%
45%
The top 1 percentile
In this highest echelon, the top 1 percentile of earners from each entity, men outnumbered women by more than three to one. Because names are not a reliable indicator of race, it was not possible to assess where women of colour are within each institution, but The Globe individually contacted women in the top 1 percentile to ask how they identify racially. In total, of the 289 women in this category, just 27 identified as women of colour. In 41 cases, we could not determine race. Put another way, of the 1,059 public sector employees who are among the top 1 percentile of earners at their respective organizations, 3 per cent are racialized women.
Women in the top 1 percentile
1,059
People within the top 1 percentile of earners
289
of them are women
We could not determine the background of 41 women
27
of those women are BIPOC
Women in the top 1 percentile
1,059
People within the top 1 percentile of earners
289
of them are women
We could not determine the background of 41 women.
27
of those women are BIPOC
Women in the top 1 percentile
1,059
People within the top 1 percentile of earners
289
of them are women
We could not determine the background of 41 women.
27
of those women are BIPOC
A leaky pipeline
When people talk about the glass ceiling, it usually refers to women breaking through to the C-suite or president’s office. But The Globe’s analysis has found that women seem to be topping out as mid-level managers. In truth, the ceiling metaphor isn’t a great one, because the numbers don’t show a hard barrier women can’t cross; it’s more of a leaky pipeline. In many workplaces – especially universities – the leak visibly accelerates a few rungs up from the bottom. What is clear is that by the highest salary band, women are dramatically outnumbered.
Percentage of women at different
salary bands
Provincial
governments
Municipalities
100
75
50
25
0
Publicly owned
corporations
Universities
100
75
50
25
0
Lower
salary
Higher
salary
Percentage of women at different salary bands
Provincial
governments
Municipalities
100
75
50
25
0
Publicly owned
corporations
Universities
100
75
50
25
0
Lower
salary
Higher
salary
Percentage of women at different salary bands
Provincial
governments
Publicly owned
corporations
Municipalities
Universities
100
75
50
25
0
Lower
salary
Higher
salary
To examine the distribution of women within each workplace, The Globe assessed every entity using salary bands. Organizations with 100 or more high-income employees were split into 10, and smaller entities were divided into five. In the highest salary band, women were outnumbered at least four to one in the cities of Winnipeg, Brampton, Ont., and Vaughan, Ont., as well as at 19 universities, including the University of Windsor, the University of Ottawa, the University of Alberta, Brock University, the University of Waterloo, Western University, the University of Toronto and several other, smaller schools.
Entities with the sharpest decline in
female representation
% who are women, by salary band
Ontario Tech
University
University of
Regina
Lower
salary
Higher
salary
Lower
salary
Higher
salary
100
75
50
25
0
Brandon
University
Lakehead
University
100
75
50
25
0
Mount Royal
University
Western
University
100
75
50
25
0
Queen’s
University
Brock
University
100
75
50
25
0
McMaster
University
Carleton
University
100
75
50
25
0
The University
of Winnipeg
University of
Ottawa
100
75
50
25
0
Entities with the sharpest decline in female
representation
% who are women, by salary band
Ontario Tech
University
University of
Regina
Lower
salary
Higher
salary
Lower
salary
Higher
salary
100
75
50
25
0
Brandon
University
Lakehead
University
100
75
50
25
0
Mount Royal
University
Western
University
100
75
50
25
0
Queen’s
University
Brock
University
100
75
50
25
0
McMaster
University
Carleton
University
100
75
50
25
0
The University
of Winnipeg
University of
Ottawa
100
75
50
25
0
Entities with the sharpest decline in female representation
% who are women, by salary band
Brandon
University
Lakehead
University
Ontario Tech
University
University of
Regina
100
75
50
25
0
Brock
University
Mount Royal
University
Western
University
Queen’s
University
100
75
50
25
0
The University
of Winnipeg
University of
Ottawa
McMaster
University
Carleton
University
100
75
50
25
0
Lower
salary
Higher
salary
Some organizations showed sharp declines in female representation between the first and last salary band. Other entities were male-dominated from the very beginning. This was especially true with power companies.
Entities with the lowest representation
of women at the highest salary band
% who are women, by salary band
Manitoba
Hydro
Ontario Power
Generation
Lower
salary
Higher
salary
Lower
salary
Higher
salary
100
75
50
25
0
City of
Winnipeg
Acadia
University
100
75
50
25
0
Sask. Power
Corp.
University of
Lethbridge
100
75
50
25
0
University of
Windsor
University of
Ottawa
100
75
50
25
0
St. Francis Xavier
University
City of
Brampton
100
75
50
25
0
University of
Alberta
Mount Royal
University
100
75
50
25
0
Entities with the lowest representation
of women at the highest salary band
% who are women, by salary band
Manitoba
Hydro
Ontario Power
Generation
Lower
salary
Higher
salary
Lower
salary
Higher
salary
100
75
50
25
0
City of
Winnipeg
Acadia
University
100
75
50
25
0
Sask. Power
Corp.
University of
Lethbridge
100
75
50
25
0
University of
Windsor
University of
Ottawa
100
75
50
25
0
St. Francis Xavier
University
City of
Brampton
100
75
50
25
0
University of
Alberta
Mount Royal
University
100
75
50
25
0
Entities with the lowest representation of women
at the highest salary band
% who are women, by salary band
Manitoba
Hydro
Ontario Power
Generation
City of
Winnipeg
Acadia
University
100
75
50
25
0
Sask. Power
Corp.
University of
Lethbridge
University of
Windsor
University of
Ottawa
100
75
50
25
0
St. Francis Xavier
University
University of
Alberta
City of
Brampton
Mount Royal
University
100
75
50
25
0
Lower
salary
Higher
salary
The Power Gap in management
Another way The Globe measured power within institutions was to examine individual job titles. Across all four pillars and within most individual entities, a number of positions associated with management roles routinely showed up: supervisor, manager, senior manager, director, executive director and vice-president. Although the results varied, once again the trend showed that women were outnumbered almost everywhere.
Proportion of men and women
in management roles
Men
Women
Provincial
governments
Municipalities
5
5
Vice-
presidents
Not common
in this pillar
50%
50%
297
217
22
16
Executive
directors
58%
42%
58%
42%
993
857
374
267
Directors
54%
46%
58%
42%
152
126
46
25
Senior
managers
55%
45%
65%
35%
975
959
934
757
Managers
50%
50%
55%
45%
171
44
591
236
Supervisors
80%
20%
71%
29%
Publicly owned
corporations
Universities
169
112
228
152
Vice
Presidents
60%
40%
60%
40%
102
126
47
29
Executive
directors
45%
55%
62%
38%
716
764
523
372
Directors
48%
52%
58%
42%
37
38
206
140
Senior
managers
49%
51%
60%
40%
265
196
774
503
Managers
57%
43%
61%
39%
Not common
in this pillar
Not common
in this pillar
Supervisors
Proportion of men and women
in management roles
Men
Women
Provincial
governments
Municipalities
5
5
Vice-
presidents
Not common
in this pillar
50%
50%
297
217
22
16
Executive
directors
58%
42%
58%
42%
993
857
374
267
Directors
54%
46%
58%
42%
152
126
46
25
Senior
managers
55%
45%
65%
35%
975
959
934
757
Managers
50%
50%
55%
45%
171
44
591
236
Supervisors
80%
20%
71%
29%
Publicly owned
corporations
Universities
169
112
228
152
Vice
President
60%
40%
60%
40%
102
126
47
29
Executive
directors
45%
55%
62%
38%
716
764
523
372
Directors
48%
52%
58%
42%
37
38
206
140
Senior
managers
49%
51%
60%
40%
265
196
774
503
Managers
57%
43%
61%
39%
Not common
in this pillar
Not common
in this pillar
Supervisors
Proportion of men and women in management roles
Men
Women
Provincial
governments
Publicly owned
corporations
Municipalities
Universities
5
5
228
152
169
112
Not common
in this pillar
Vice-
presidents
50%
50%
60%
40%
60%
40%
22
16
297
217
47
29
102
126
Executive
directors
58%
42%
58%
42%
62%
38%
45%
55%
374
267
993
857
523
372
716
764
Directors
58%
42%
54%
46%
58%
42%
48%
52%
46
25
152
126
206
140
37
38
Senior
managers
65%
35%
55%
45%
60%
40%
49%
51%
934
757
975
959
774
503
265
196
Managers
55%
45%
50%
50%
61%
39%
57%
43%
591
236
171
44
Not common
in this pillar
Not common
in this pillar
Supervisors
71%
29%
80%
20%
The gender divide in Quebec
The Globe collected data from 74 entities in Quebec: 49 public corporations, five cities, 19 universities and the provincial government. However, only the City of Montreal agreed to provide the first name and salary of all six-figure earners. Every other organization only disclosed senior management, as the province’s legislation allows. Sometimes, as was the case with most corporations, this was interpreted as only one or two people. In other cases, like the municipal governments, each list had a few dozen. Because there was no consistency around disclosure, each organization is best assessed on its own. (You can find detailed Quebec entity data in the “power position” section at the bottom of each of the pillar pages.) What can be said is that of the 73 entities that provided limited data, men outnumbered women among the senior ranks two-thirds of the time, and 67 per cent had a man in the top job. But of significant note, the wage gap between men and women executives was lower than the average outside of Quebec.
The Globe reached out to every entity in our database that provided detailed information for comment. You can read their responses here. A few dozen have not responded. The Globe will continue to update this dataset as new information arises.
TIPS: Over the next year, The Globe and Mail will continue to explore the extent of the power gap in workplaces across Canada as well as the causes and solutions. If you have a story to tell, you can reach out to rdoolittle@globeandmail.com
Visit our data pages for in-depth analysis on each pillar, including breakdowns by entity, and see how they compare.
With reporting and research from Andrew Saikali, Stephanie Chambers, Tavia Grant, Denise Balkissoon and Tu Thanh Ha.
ADDITIONAL CREDITS
- Story editing: Dawn Calleja
- Design and art direction: Ming Wong
- Web design and development: Christopher Manza
- Illustration and graphics: Murat Yükselir
- Photo editing: Theresa Suzuki
- Data science consulting and verification: Lola Abduvaitova
- Data science consulting: Shengqing Wu
- Data verification: Tom Cardoso
- Michael Pereira also contributed to the project
Our Morning Update and Evening Update newsletters are written by Globe editors, giving you a concise summary of the day’s most important headlines. Sign up today.
Robyn Doolittle
Chen Wang